Crime and Legal System Essay Example for Free

Crime and Legal System EssayIn the broad heavens of criminal justice, one particular issue critically relevant in the concern of crime prevention and social control is juvenile delinquency overdue mainly to the fact that its target population are the minors in the society. The concept of juvenile delinquency generally encompassed numerous concerns namely the crimes involving minor offenders, the chat up musical arrangement to address these cases, the punishment approach for the young individual, and others relevant in achieving an effective approach for achieving the ideal justice for these young offenders. In this pursuit, incorporating sociological concepts empennage indeed promote festering in the effectiveness of the criminal justice system for cases of juvenile delinquency. In analyzing the criminal justice system for minor offenders, it is critically important to consider several factors directly related to the effective achievement of its function. Among these factor s are the effect of the punishment to the minor offender, beneficial alternatives for the criminal punishment, motivational strategies of behavioural development, influence of individualizedity background, and others.Incorporating the sociological perspective in this concern, the said field explains that the family structure, environment, and culture are influential factors to the individuals personality and behavioral development as such, should be considered in determining the appropriate bodily process for cases of juvenile delinquency. Indeed, incorporating this approach go away reveal a more appropriate, effectively altercating, and motivational action towards addressing the personal problems of the young offenders resulting to their juvenile delinquency.Indeed, sociological, the youth period in the timeline of each individual is a critical condition wherein the person encounter personality muddiness and identity struggle. During this period, the erratic behavioral changes in the person can result to aggressive actions and decisions and if influenced by negative factors can result to juvenile delinquency. As such, advent the view through a sociological perspective, it is more advantageous to tackle the problem by helping the offender cope up with his or her personal changes and struggle and guide the person to the proper way.Indeed, developing the punishment system in this approach can result to an effective juvenile justice system that promote healthy development through guiding the misdemeanor of the minor offenders towards fruitful growth and development for their benefit. In this approach, the issue of juvenile delinquency will be addressed by minimizing the problem and taking this approach as a mean of helping the youth through the growth.

The Role Of Cryptography In Network Security Computer Science Essay

The Role Of Cryptography In net profit gage Computer Science EssayNe 2rk auspices is concerned with the protection of meshing resources against alteration, destruction and unauthorized drill, cryptogram and encoding are most critical components of intercommunicate certification. In my assignment, as a net income protective cover manager, I will try to research explore the performance of various cryptographic schemes and evaluate weather vane security and the security of radiocommunication network arranging. dischargeworks take all kind of sensitive data and security play a vital role of any wireless network system. Security certify level of data integrity and data confidentiality as maintain wired network, without accurately implement security measures and wireless network adapter have intercourse within range of the network adapter. Security is high lack, laziness, and lack of knowledge and employee are not aware of these things, especially in small force-up and h ome, any transcription need to aware and training for employees cartridge holder to time.Cryptology has two components, kryptos and logos. Cryptographic methods to certify the uprightty and security of communication and main goal is practicer authentication, data authentication such as integrity and authentication, non-repudiation of origin, and confidentiality and it has two functions encipherion and decipherion.In my research, as a network security manager, I will die cryptography, web security, and security of wireless network system to implement the network security strategies for the organisation in future.1. Explore and explain different types of cryptography and pass judgment the role of cryptography in network security.Cryptography has different methods for taking clear, readable data, and converts into unreadable data of set up communication and likewise modifys it back. Cryptography is also use to authenticate account of message source and certify integrity o f it. Cipher aim message and use cryptical code. The cipher scrambles the message so that it toiletnot be understood by anyone other than the vector and receiver. Only the receiver who has the secret code scum bag decipher the original message, thus ensuring confidentiality. (Citrix-system, 2010)Type of cryptographyFollowing three super C types of cryptography as belowSecret list cryptography is identified as symmetric blusher cryptography. Both sender and receiver know same secret code described the key and messages are enrolled by the sender and use key, decrypted by the receiver. It use single key for both encoding and decryption. This method works healthy if you are communicating with only a limited number of people, yet it becomes impractical to ex win over secret keys with large numbers of people. Secret key cryptography use is such as data encoding standard, advance encryption standard, Cast-128/256, international data encryption algorithm, and rivest ciphers etc.tera (Citrix-system, 2010)Public key cryptography is called asymmetric encryption and use couple of keys one for encryption and another for decryption. find work in pairs of coordination world and secluded keys. Public key can freely distributed the mysterious key. If senders and receivers dont have to communicate keys openly, they can give private key to communication confidentially. Public key cryptography use for key exchange and digital signatures such as RSA, digital signature algorithm, public-key cryptography standard etc.Hash functions use a mathematical transformation to permanently encrypt information. It also called message digests and one way encryption. Hash function use to entrust a digital re cause of charge contents and it is putting greenly employed by many operating system to encrypt discussions and it provide measure of the integrity of a file. It is also use message digest, respectable hash algorithm, RIPEMD etc. (Kessler, G,2010)The role of cryptog raphyMany feature combine to throw network security to the give-up the ghost issues in the organisation and face IS professional daily. Nowadays business operation decentralization and correspondence growth of computer network is the number one driver of concern roughly the network security. As far as security concern, many organisation networks are accidently waiting to occur, such accident will occur is impossible to venture but security breaches will occur. When organisation network security chooses is 100% involve cryptography technology. The following five basic uses of cryptography in network security solution areConfidentiality Cryptography gives confidentiality by dint of changing or hiding a message and protects confidential data from unauthorized advance and use cryptographic key techniques to critically protect dataAccess control Only authorized substance abusers (login countersignature) can entranceway to protect confidential data etc. Access would be possible for those individual that had access to the correct cryptographic keys (Mitchell, M, 1995)Integrity Cryptographic tools give integrity verify that permit a recipient role to authenticate that message transformed and cannot prevent a message from being transformed but effective to identify either planned and unplanned change of the messageAuthentication is the ability to verify who sent a message. It done through the control key because those with access to the key are able to encrypt a message. Cryptographic function use different methods to certify that message is not changed or altered. These hash functions, digital signatures and message authentication codes.2. Explore encryption for network security.Encryption for network securityEncryption is the most effective method to reduce data loss or theft to encrypt the data on the network security. Encryption is a process of network security to apply crypto services at the network transfer layer on top of the data link level and unde r the exertion level. Network encryption other name network layer or network level encryption. The network transfer layers are layers 2 and 4 of the open systems inter tie inions (OSI) is the colligateence model, the layers responsible for connectivity and routing between two end points. Using the existing network services and application software, network encryption is invisible to the end user and operates independently of any other encryption processes used. Data is encrypted only while in transit, existing as plaintext on the originating and receiving hosts.Encryption for network security execute through internet protocol security and set of open internet engineering task hug (IETF) standard and apply in combination and build structure for confidential communication over IP networks. Internet protocol security works through the network architecture and encrypted packets show to be the same to unencrypted packets and rout through any IP network easily. Network encryption produ ct and services provide several companies such as Cisco, Oracle etc. (Search security, 2010)http//www.cipheroptics.com/images/network-encryption-big.jpgFigure 1 Network Encrypted3. Critically review the key and password management in legal injury of network system security.The key managementInformation become essential assets and protects it and availability is vital for business success. Encryption is the technology for doing so and become remarkable part of network system security. Encryption key is very helpful to secure data and information. There are two types of key public and private key use to secure the information and network. These key used in cryptographic system as belowPublic Key it was invented in 1976 and refer to cypher architecture type and apply two key pairs is encrypt and decrypt. It can use to encrypt message and corresponding private key to decrypt it. Public key encryption believe extremely secure because it does not need secret shared key among the sende r and receiver. It is helpful for keeping private emails and stored on mail servers for many years. It programs such as PGP has digital signature ability built message sent can digitally signed.Private Key it also called secret key and encryption/decryption key to exchange secret messages and shared by the communicators so that each can encrypt and decrypt messages. Public key uses with private key together. (Search-security 2010) rallying cry managementPassword is the most important aspect to login into the system and the network. Organisation should allow only authorize users to access to the network and every user access individual login and passwords to enter the network, its conclusion increase the security aspects. There are following necessary things to secure password in the network system as belowLong Password every user need to long password because short password can very quickly compromised and analyse the permutation based on the password lengthChange password anyti me employee should change password regularly, nobody sop up easily and helpful for security breaches of the networkAvoid utilize similar password dont use the same password for different accounts because it would naive for administrator to see and employee should use different password for safety and security for network systemNecessity to changing password regularly employees also gradually more access their work accounts from remote location, user need to educate/awareness on the required of altering the password frequently. (Storts, J, 2010)4. Compare symmetric and asymmetric encryption systems and their pic to attack.Symmetric encryption systems and their vulnerabilitySymmetric encryption system use same secret key is used to encrypt and decrypt information and transform between two keys. Secret key concern to information to transform the content because both can use encrypts and decrypts traffic. Symmetric encryption system has two types areStream ciphers it is bits of i nformation one at a time and operates on 1 bit of data at a time. It is faster and small to implement and have an important security gap. Certain types of attacks may cause the information to be revealedBlock ciphers it is encrypts information by breaking it down into blocks and encrypt data in each block and this data is fixed sized commonly 64 bit and mostly use in triple diethylstilbestrol and AES. (Encryptionanddecryption, 2010)Symmetric encryption algorithms including Des, 3DES, AES, and RC4 etc. 3DES and AES are normally used in IP sec and other types of VPNs. RC4 is used on wireless networks and used by WEP and WPA for encryption. Symmetric encryption algorithms can be extremely fast, and their relatively low complexity allows for easy implementation in hardware. However, they require that all hosts participating in the encryption have already been configured with the secret key through some external means. (Stretch, J, 2010)Symmetric Encryption Vulnerabilities areTo break symmetric encryption system through brute force and cryptanalysisFigure-2 Symmetric encryption system abstemious password can break symmetric encryption systemsPassword always keep in mind or make a backup copy of the passwordExchange secret keys in secure elan and stored properly. (Encryptionanddecryption, 2010)To leaking and spying out password.symmetric_encryption.pngAsymmetric encryption systems and their vulnerabilityAsymmetric encryption system use two keys one for encryption use for public, anyone can encrypt a message and another for decryption use for private and only receiver can decrypt a message, normally set up a key pair within a network and involve in six main elements arePlaintext Text message applied in algorithmEncryption algorithm it performs mathematical operation to conduct substitutions and transform to the plaintextPublic and Private keys the keys pair where one use for encryption and other decryptionCiphertext produce encrypt message by applying algorith m to plaintext message through using keyDecryption Algorithm generates ciphertext and match key to produce the plaintext. (Encryptionanddecryption, 2010)Most common asymmetric encryption is RSA and if compare with symmetric encryption it is much slower but its capability to establish secure channel over a non-secure modal(a) such as internet. This is accomplished by the exchange of public keys, which can only be used to encrypt data. The complementary private key, which is never shared, is used to decrypt. (Stretch, J, 2010) asymmetric_encryption.pngAsymmetric Encryption Vulnerabilities areFigure-3 Asymmetric encryption systemPublic key can be distributed freelyIt is computing intensiveIt process very slowlyWeak password can easily stealWeak encryption to break this systemCrash digital signatureSecurity breach at the time of key exchange.5. Explain and critically assess web security and critically list down different type web security tools and technologies.Web securityWeb is very vital role in our daily life such as online searching, surfing, customers, vendors, co-staffs, email, etc but need to be web security and personal identity theft protection. Web security has many problems like spam, viruses, security breaches theft etc. This problem with web security is the part of network of attack computers and servers send out spam messages without knowing it and email / passwords produce and re-sale to competitor.In my research, security expert says that shows you how to do something in five minutes and conveniently neglect to conjure up the security implications of their advice. If it sounds too easy to be true, it probably is. A perfect example of this is PHP solutions that use a file for data storage and ask you to make it writable to the world. This is easy to implement, but it means that any spammer can write to this file. (Heilmann, 2010)Web security has many risk and attacks such as IP address identify the computer, Fixed IP address is larger security risk, share network, staff unaware security leak in the network setting, SQL injection attacks, exploits browsers and websites, remote file inclusion (RFI), phishing etc. (Heilmann, 2010)Web Security Tools and TechnologiesThe following list down of different type of web security tools and technologies as belowSpike representativeIt is a professional grade tool for looking for application level vulnerabilities in web application and cover SQL injection and cross-site-scriptingPower fuzzerIt capable of spidering website and identifying inputs and common web vulnerabilities such as XSS, SQL injection and support https. Written in pythonSec point penetratorIt network security tools based, penetration testing appliance or web based service give vulnerability scan pen testing and can change IP address to scan and reportNet sparkerIt allows users to exploit the identified vulnerabilities and see real impact of the problem. It capable false positive free, handling of websites that rely on AJAX and JavaScriptOWASPIt uses multiple techniques such as conditional errors injection, blind injection based on integers, strings/statements, MS-SQL verbose error message and identify database version and gather informationGama SecIt is modify online website vulnerability assessment delivers test to web servers, web based application and web-interfaced system and support HTTP authentication schemes, HTTP protocol, BASIC etcNIkto ScannerOpen source web server scanner and perform complete tests against web servers for multiple items, dangerous files, CGIs, and problems of the serverPerimeter checkit analyze external network devices such as servers, websites, firewalls, routers and security vulnerabilities and also lead to interrupted service, data theft, system destruction and help immediately remedy security problem. (Hower, R, 2010).6. Identify vulnerabilities and mis-configurations in wireless networks. picture and mis-configuration describe as some event that exposes organisat ion and network security has ability to work efficiently its required confidentiality level and protects lack of the systems.Wireless networks vulnerabilities nigh of the following common wireless networks vulnerabilities as belowNo set physical boundaries wireless access points can lose signals, due to doors, walls, floors, and insulation etc undisciplined users setting up unauthorized networks and workstation untrained users who either are uninformed and therefore unaware of security measures that must be taken when deploying wireless, or whose hope to have wireless is so strong that it completely overshadows the rules set by the organization to ensure that systems are secure. (Lane, H, 2005)Rogue access points this attack consist of connecting wrong access point on the networkLack of monitoring every organisation has some loopholes in monitoring but intrusion detection tools can use continuously monitor to secure the network systemMAC address filtering it is unique number assigned and wireless LANs allows access point to connect to network. Filtering can result in security breach as user change MAC address, it result identity theftInsufficient encryption standards swooning encryption standard say that users will not enable it and harmful to wireless LAN as weak encryptionEasy to eavesdrop wireless use airwaves to listen easy on network traffic or connect to network and it results the data is encrypted with strong encryption. If WEP encryption use, hack writers can some attack to decrypt the informationUnsecure holes in network hacker can enter wireless LAN by circumventing firewalls and allow other to come, as a result confidential data lost or may compromise on the networkDenial-of-service attacks external causes based is Denial-of-service attacks and make network unproductive and forcefully user to disconnect continually disrupting operation in the organisation such as jamming (jam a radio network), rush access (overload network with malicio us connection), spoofed de-authentication frames etc. (Lane, H, 2005)Wireless network mis-configurationMis-matched software and hardware it is problem arises for network infrastructure that is vulnerable to wide range of attacks. Sometime function work properly but awfully mis-configuredService Set ID (SSID) SSID is a configurable identification mechanism to enables a client to communicate with the correct base-station. Configured properly with SSID otherwise attacker can exploit the SSID in attempt to access base station and change SSID password and change 802.11 security settings for authentication. (Spam-laws, 2009)7. Demonstrate how to keep wireless network system safe.Nowadays, wireless network become more common called Wi-Fi /802.11 and allow computer to connect to another without cables and using computer easier and more convenient than ever onwards with fast internet connection and wireless router and surf internet, data transfer, print documents, email, download informat ion etc but unhappily, it also make easy for outsider/hacker to do the same. Organisation should following points to keep wireless network system safe and secure as belowKeep-out undesirable wireless guests wireless network restrict access through encryption is easy through which encoding or scrambling information to receive and send, only those can access with right password or encryption key and restrict wireless network to normal office hours. Some encryption protect wireless network such as wired equivalent protection (WEP), Wi-Fi protected access (WPA), WPA2 etcChoose strong password in my research, I found some basic guideline when hold a wireless network password isPassword should be longer (20 characters) it takes someone to figure it outUse mixture lowercase and uppercase letterInsert numbers in between lettersChange password every 3 monthsWrite password down and keep in safe (in case of forget).Use the firewall it is front security and secures network, computers and da ta from snooping eyes (Bryan, S, 2010)Dont show the name of the network (SSID)Change default SSID, dont use name to identify the organisationUse MAC filtering because each network card is unique code known MAC address and access points to restrict access to assured have on and use built-in encryption to prevent eavesdropRestrict user ability (network administrators) to setup quick and dirty wireless network, even temporarily. mavin rogue access point can undo all the good work you do on the othersCertify all security measures are in place, it result defence against intruders (Microsoft, 2010)Turn off the wireless network when it isnt useHide/keep safe place confidential files/data.ConclusionI come together that security of wireless network system play key role in every organisation and also implement all network security strategies for the organisation in present and future and secure network resources against alteration, destruction, and unauthorized use. Cryptography tools and w eb security tools are also very helpful to secure the network system and protect IT assets, confidential data and information.RecommendationI recommend some of the important points as belowBetter education and stronger security implementationWireless network awareness and training for employees timelyUpdate wireless network security timelyCertify to secure wireless access point with a strong passwordWhen it need implement WEP authentication methodMake sure all users have proper key or password configured on their systemMake sure all service provide to users are protected by end to end encryptionUse SSID, MAC address filtering allows to configure wireless APs.

Applications of Semiconductor lasers

Applications of Semiconductor optic masersAbstract- Semiconductor opthalmic masers postulate the potential to meet the demands of next generation utmost speed opthalmic ne dickensrk applications and also have great impact on various other technology domains. Its embarrassed cost, easy wavelength tune ability, baseborn military force consumption and pure turnout wanton it ideal for optical intercourse applications. This paper is a review of the merits, demerits, current applications, commercial availability and future directions of semiconducting material optical masers in optical communion. Comparative analysis of these semiconductor lasers with respect to various parameters also been conducted.Keywords Semiconductor lasers, Fabry-Perot laser, Distributed feedback (DFB) laser, External Cavity Diode Lasers (ECDL), Multi Quantum Well (MQW) laser, Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSEL)i.IntroductionThe semiconductor lasers were discovered in 1962 by Robert Hall and his team members 1, 2. With the advent of this technology patents and articles started to publish on this technology but at that time this technology was not mature ample to realize the dreams of the scientists, engineers and physicist. But with liftment in the field and the enabling technologies soon made it possible to produce inexpensive commercially available semiconductor laser. The origination of semiconductor lasers not only revolutionizes the optical communication but it has many applications in other domains also.Semiconductor lasers atomic number 18 one of the popular optical communication wild source for data transmission. They are supposed to be the laser of the future, because of their compactness in size, easy integration, much output military unit, optical pumps for solid-state lasers (primary light source i.e laser diode pumps another solid state lasers) and their rapid improvement.Semiconductor lasers are essentially diodes which produces coherent ligh t by dint of the process of aroused emission. They uses semiconductor as a gain medium. The gain medium is handle by an external source, which is electrical in nature in case of semiconductor lasers 3.As they are basically p-n junctions, so they are compact and can be fabricated on large scale by the use of advance semiconductor IC technology. Semiconductor lasers are very efficient in converting electrical power into optical power 10.In section.II basic types of semiconductor lasers are described in terms of their basic working procedure, wagess, disadvantages, commercial availability future directions and applications. Section.III produces the comparison of semiconductor lasers with respect to various parameters and section.IV contains the conclusion.II. Types of semiconductor lasersFol kickoffing are the basic types of semiconductor lasersFabry Perot (FP) LasersDistributed Feedback (DFB) lasersMulti Quantum Well (MQW) laserExternal Cavity Diode Lasers (ECDL)Vertical Cavity Sur face Emitting Lasers (VCSEL)A. Fabry-Perot (FP) lasersIn FP lasers, reflects create the right condition for the lasing to occur. oscillate cavity is formed when two mirrors are put in front of each other. The bouncing of light will take place between these two mirrors, the distance between these two mirrors are adjusted in much(prenominal) a way that this distance is the integral six-fold of half wavelength, only is such scenario light will reinforce itself. Wavelengths that are not resonant they undergo destructive interference and deflect. One of the two mirrors is fully reflective and the second mirror concedes very small amount of light to pass through 4.Figure.1.a Fabry Perot Laser conceptual structure, Ref 4Figure.1.b Fabry Perot Laser structure, Ref www.scholar.lib.vt.eduA.1. AdvantagesFP laser gives comb of (Amplified Spontaneous firing off) ASE distributor point akin in frequency 5.FP laser can be used for transmission of data with multi elan optical fiber 6.FP lase r also have uniform intensity over Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) 5.Perfect for optical links where long term power and wavelength stability is required.A.2. DisadvantagesHigh dispersion in high speed and long transmission system because the unearthly comprehensiveness can span as much as 5 nm 6.At 2.5Gbps and higher the wavelength center of FP laser goes out of wavelength tolerance.Not suitable for long distances.With the improvement in VCSELs technology, applications of 1310 nm and 1550 nm applications are moving from FP laser to VCSEL.A.3. approaching directions and ApplicationsIncrease in bandlargeness up to 15 GHz (the running value) by reducing abject frequency roll off parasitic effects of slash circuits by injection locking 7.FP lasers can generate indivi treble longitudinal mode laser 8.FP lasers external optical modulator for optical access network 9. ghostly width of FP laser allows transmission to distances of 40 Km at 1.7 Gbps.5FP offers Corse wavelength div ision multiplexing (CWDM) with channels at 1.3m and 1.5m simultaneously on a single fiber 5.FP lasers offer benefits in LAN that use one wavelength per fiber 6.FP laser can be used as multi wavelength source of Amplified Spontaneous Emission (ASE) for spectrum sliced 5.The 1550 nm FP laser can support Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) 6.A.4. Commercial availability of FP lasersMultiple Application Platform (MAP) FP laser 9 is FP laser source with key features like single mode or multi mode output, congenital modulation, LAN extensions for instrumentation (LXI) compliant etc. This device has weight of nearly of half kilo gram is capable of operating on different optical fibers such as Flexcor and SMF-28 10 with operational temperature compass of 10C to 40C. This product is commercially available.B. Distributed feedback (DFB) lasersIn FP laser there is feedback of light from the mirrors, this light feedback can be provided in distributed manner by series of closely place mirrors /reflectors (means there is a periodic variation in the width of the cavity). in that respect is a corrugated section in the cavity the incident light passes through section causes series of reflections. If the corrugation period is the integral multiple of half wavelength (Bragg condition) the resulting transmitted wave will add in phase. This mechanism suppresses other longitudinal modes and allow only single longitudinal mode whose wavelength is equal to twice the corrugation period. 11Figure.2. DFB laser structure 4B.1. AdvantagesDFB lasers provides better wavelength stability than cleaved end face laser 12The line width of DFB is less than that of reflective end face lasers 12.Low chirp 13Better wavelength selectivity.DFB laser is used in high performance system because of its narrow spectral output width 6.B.2. DisadvantagesThe amplitude of the standing wave is fixed because of gratingsEmitted wavelength near threshold current cant be controlled 14Wavelength chirp is associat ed with the spatial burning of the pallbearer holes.Some values of rare facet phase give unacceptable performance.B.3.Future directions and applications of Distributed feedback (DFB) lasersAll optical flip-flop is one of the building block for fast optical packet switching as it temporary stores the header information while the payload is routed to the correct output port. Single distributed feedback (DFB) laser diode based, all optical flip flop can be used to serve this purpose. Experimental results shows that DFB lasers can provide optical memory in an economical way and at the same time shows fast switching of optical packets (as low as 45 ps can be achieved). Using DFB lasers as an all optical flip flop 40 Gbps can be switched. 15Used in DWDM system where tune ability of signals are required.Used in the sensing of thorough narrow line width of the signal.B.4. Commercial availability of Distributed Feedback laserThe production of Quantum dot pure Green laser 16 is possible by using DFB laser technology. DFB laser gives high reliability for optical communication to form quantum dot crystal with a wavelength of 1064nm 16. There is significant amount of reduction in power consumption for converting 1064nm quantum dot laser from electricity to light by the use of DFB laser.C. Multi Quantum well (MQW) lasersIn Quantum well lasers the active region is very narrow which causes quantum project to occur. The wavelength which emits is dependent on the width of the active region rather than the band gap. This feature gives shorter wavelength than conventional lasers 17.Figure.3. Cavity structure of MQW laser 4C.1. AdvantagesEnhanced gain ascribable to quantum well structure and gain co-efficient is usually 3 times or more than single layer FP laser 13Produce shorter oscillation wavelengthSmaller linewidth sweetening factor (), at larger linewidth enhancement factor the laser instability is enhanced 13.Small optical lossesBetter confinement of laser actions becau se of multiple active regions.Low threshold currentHigh modulation speedLow temperature dependencyC.2. DisadvantagesThe internal structure of MQW laser is designed such that it is more susceptible to back reflections.C.3. Future directions and ApplicationsModulating retro reflector combines optical retro reflector and optical modulator (MQW lasers).Strained quantum well technology can become the hollow out technology for high performance semiconductor device by expanding the flexibility of band engineering 18.Optical repeaters, as it gives saturated output power to virtually 3dBm.C.4.Commercial availability of MQW lasersSANYO GaAlAs index channelise laser diodes with MQW structure, these are infrared powerful lasers source 19 of maximum power up to 200mW and wavelength range of 782nm to 830nm is commercially available.SONY GaAlAs index guided laser diodes with MQW structure these are infrared powerful lasers source 19 gives optical power range from 90mW up to 60W. This huge optic al output power gives high brightness.D. External Cavity Diode Lasers (ECDL)ECDL can also be used to achieve the single longitudinal mode wavelength. ECDL is a semiconductor based laser with one end of the laser diode has anti reflective coating and laser resonator is completed with collimating mirror and external mirror.As they are tunable lasers so for wavelength selection they use diffraction gratings. End mirror contains collimating lens and diffraction grating. The anti reflective coated end of the diode gets feedback from the diffracted beam. Tuning of the emitted wavelength is done through the rotation of the diffracting grating. There is some more variation for this setup. 11, 20Figure.4. EDCL setup Ref www.clu-in.orgD.1.AdvantagesSide mode suppression ratio (SMSR) is better than -40 dB and has narrow intrinsic line widthPulse repetition rate can easily be selected 21Filter can be inserted for the fixing of emission wavelength in mode locked diode laser 21 etc.D.2. Disadvant agesThe direction of output beam changes by rotating the diffraction grating which not suitable for many optical communication applications.In fixed direction of the output beam, the zero order reflection of the beam bounced by the mirror is lost.D.3.Future directions and applicationsTunable continuous wave THz radiation can be generated by the use of dual mode ECDL from 250 MHz to several THz 22Without mode hopping wavelength tuning over 40 nm around 1550 nm is expected by new pattern of EDCL with all dielectric thin film Fabry Perot filters. 23Atomic clock ECDL is used in the optical system of the atomic clock it is used for the cooling and the spying of clock transition. 24Mode locked ECDL are mostly used in optical communication (DWDM) for data transmission. 21Testing and measurement in optical fiber communicationNon-linear frequency conversion.D.4. Commercial availability of ECDLTEC-100 and TEC-120 25 External cavity diode Littrow laser system gives optical output power up to 200mW and running range (mod-hop free) up to 30GHz.DLX-100 26 External cavity tunable diode gives output power up to 1W and mod-hop free tuning up to 15GHz.E. Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSEL)VCSEL achieves single longitudinal mode operation in different manner. The active region is placed between two highly reflective surfaces/mirrors. These two reflective surfaces have alternated high and low refractive index. The reflectivity of the surfaces is between 99.5-99.9% that is why light oscillates perpendicularly through the layers and emits from the top or the bottom of the device. 27E.1. AdvantagesIt has high wavelength stabilityIt is less sensitive to temperature (can race reliably up to 80 C)Less refrigeration is required for VCSEL as it operation do not emit much heat.It provides high powered per unit area ( up to 1200W/cm2)It emits circular beam as a transmitter which leads to small optical loss.Figure.5. VCSEL structure 4E.2. DisadvantagesBecause of high mirror reflectivity in the VCSEL internal structure lowers the optical output power.They emit low output power (in mW) because of their small active medium volume.InP based VCSEL suffers from having low conduction band offset, low conduction band offset means low confinements of electron which results improper temperature stability of active material gain.To produce longer wavelength in VCSEL, mechanism of reduplicate fusion is used. This mechanism increases the cost as it is complicated procedure 28.E.2. Future directions and applications of Vertical External Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (VECSEL) 20, 32There is an issue of optical power supply for Si-photonics transceiver which are being developed for high density optical interconnect on parallel processors can ideally solved by VECSEL as the emits in 1330 nm and 1550 nm. 29High speed modulation up to 25 Gb/sec can be achieved by using VCSEL at low current of 7.4 KA/cm2. 30Fast modulation frequency (in GHz) made its use in optical fiber communication as transmitterIdeal for local and subway system area networks as they produce low output power.Threshold less laser 31 etcE.3. Commercial availability of (VCSEL)VCSEL technology has flourished and gives grand range of products with ultra low noise, narrow line width, high optical output power (up to 1kW) and high speed modulation (speed 5GHz) 27.For high optical output power up to 1KW, a module for cooling of this system is used and fiber is pigtailed for high brightness VCSEL array.VCSELs are commercially available in blue, green and UV lasers 27.iii. Comparison of semiconductor lasersIn this section DFB, ECDL, MQW and VCSEL are compared with respect to different parameters and their suitability as optical transmitter in different optical networks.ParametersTuning agent railroad siding power ( in dBm)Tuning speedModulation speedLasersDFBTemperature13Slow (m-sec)Fast (multi-GHz)MQWQuantum confined stark effect7Fast(Fast(multi-GHz)VCSELMEMsOptically pumped 6Electrica lly pumped -3Fast(-sec)Fast ( few GHz)ECDLPeizo transducer13Slow(m-sec)Slow (Table.1 Comparison of semiconductor lasersTable.1 shows relative analysis of semiconductor lasers. Each semiconductor laser has got competitive advantage with respect to different parameter.Table.2 gives a comprehensive view of the semiconductor lasers and their application in a specific network type as an optical transmitter.Semiconductor LaserNetwork typeFP laser compact to medium range (Local Metro) NetworksDFB LaserLong haul networkMWQ LaserShort to medium range (Local Metro) NetworksECDLLong haul networkVCSELShort to medium range (Local Metro) NetworksTable.2 Semiconductor lasers with their network type supportLasersMax spectral output widthFP5 nmVCSEL0.5 nmDFB0.1 nmTable.3 Spectral width comparison of short range lasersSpectral output width measure the range of the wavelengths produce by a laser. From table.3 it is evident that DFB laser has the narrowest spectral output width, which makes DFB lase r the best choice for high performance short range optical transmission systems.iv. ConclusionThis paper gives a review on the semiconductor lasers, their working, applications, commercial availability and future directions. Relative analysis of these lasers shows that they have competitive advantage in one or other laser parameters and this analysis also shows that which semiconductor laser is appropriate to which type of optical network. Semiconductor lasers have wide applications in optical fiber communication. Lots of exciting research is going on in this field and there is still room of improvements.

The Concept Of Leadership Management Essay

The Concept Of run forership Management EssayThe concept of leave al unrivalledership had now been not only within the frame of team, presidential term and so forth it had been spread around the world and world is influenced by this concept. attractionship is actually much required in todays turbulent world because of different crises etc.Leadership is likewise a worldwide concept. It is similarly a part of worldly concernagement and also considered as a management function. Leadership is also connect with other management functions such(prenominal) as planning, organizing, communication, motivating, coordination and conditionling. in that location had been respective(a) confusions in the concept of reach outinghip starting from definition of drawship till possible action and approaches of attractorship. umteen look forers of management concepts such as Max Webber, Mary Parker Follet, F.W Taylor etc. have lead to serious mountment of leaders concept.The conce pt of leadership had been researched by mixed researchers leading to various findings. Findings such as leadership theories, approaches or way of lifes had been analyzed and it is interpreted and given below.Further, Leaders be born or make is a biggest argument of century. This is what the whole research argues to conclude.LeadershipThere had been various definitions researched by various researchers.The universal definition of leadership is live oning with and through pile and influencing the manner of plurality towards the getment of commonalty goals.Leading is a management function without which management cannot step into next function which lead interrupt the total organisational job and performance.Leadership involves quaternsome elementLeader/Persuader.Follower/Persuadee.Situation.Communication.LeaderLeader is a person with the ability to influence or persuade the behaviour of his/her rates towards a common objective or confinement to which the leader is focus ing on.Effective leader is a person who positively influence another persons deportment through effective approach or style relating to the leadership possibility used which turns the behavior towards achievement of goals effectively and efficiently.Role of effective leadersThere are twelve different roles that an effective leader performs and these twelve roles are categorized into cardinal categories and its stated belowCreate an Inspiring Vision Lead by ExampleCreate an inspiring vision, establish shared values, give direction and set stretch goals.Manage change strategically, give birth risks, create change, lead change, manage resistance to change.Lead by example, practice what you preach, set an example, and share risks or hardship.Demonstrate pledge, win respect and trust without courting popularity.Empower, Inspire, and Energize tribeBe enthusiastic, inspire and energize people, create a positive work environment.Empower people, delegate authority, be open to ideas, have faith in the originative thinking of others.Communicate openly and honestly, give clear guidelines, set clear expectations.Empathize, be willing to discuss and solve problems, listen with understanding, support and help.Build and Lead a TeamUse team approach, facilitate cooperation involve everyone trust your group rely on their judgment.Bring out the best in your people, have common touch with them coach and provide effective feedback.Permit group decision, help your team reach better decisions.Monitor progress, exactly dont micromanage, lead your team oerturn close supervision, do not over boss, do not dictate, lead team self-assessment.To further discuss, an effective leader acts as a -Clarifier who listens, summarizes and makes things clearer.Coach who encourages others to develop skills.Facilitator who helps the group set goals, make decisions, choose direction, and evaluate progress.Delegator who helps each group member apply their talents and interests to the groups g oals.Initiator who gets things moving.Manger who helps coordinate the parts of a switch and keeps an eye on program.Mediator who helps resolve differences.Networker who connects people with people and people with ideas to move the project forward.Problem solver who suggests solutions and rooms to get things done.Visionary who takes creative solutions, new directions and possibilities.It is identify six important roles are required during various changes occurring in the environment. They areRole modelSponsorDecision maker articulationMotivatorEnforcerSkills of a leaderAccording to management concept, skills are categorized into three divisions such as conceptual, human and technical skills. After various researchers findings being analyzed it had been concluded that an effective leader requires the following skillsVision, mission and goalCompetencyCommunicationInspirationInterpersonalPositive attitude contrast and strategic thinkingHonesty/integrityDedication/ loadMagnanimity/hum ilityOpen mindedCreative/innovativeAssertive/decisiveSelf-awareness grapple the stuffEncouragingPractice makes perfectPassionPersuasionDelegate, empowering and fearlessnessGenuineSupportiveMotivatingEmotional intelligenceEmployee-relationsCrisis managementOwnership and certificate of indebtednessfairnessLeadership TheoriesLeadership had been one of the concept universally researched by many, individually or jointly and which had resulted into various theories in the past centuries and it had been revised for various benefits. Out of these various theories major eight theories are discussed below groovy man hypothesisTrait theoryBehavioral theoriesRole theory.McGregors Theory X and Theory Y.Managerial grid.Participative leadershipLewins leadership style.Likerts leadership style.Situational leadership styleHersey and Blanchards situational leadership.Vroom and yettons normative model.Houses path goal theory.Contingency theoriesFiedlers Least preferred co-worker(LPC) theoryCognitive resource theory.Strategic contingency theory.Transactional leadershipLeader Member-Exchange (LMX) theoryTransformational leadershipBurns transformational leadership theory.Bass transformational leadership theory.Kouzes and Posners leadership participating inventory.Great Man TheoryThis theory is brought by Thomas Carlyle in 1840s stating that The history of the world is just the biography of great man. This theory is informed with the assumption that leaders are born and not made. He also assumes that great leaders will arise when there is a great need and that this is power heritage within men.The superlative critique or counter argument for this theory arose in 1860 by Herbert Spencer that You must admit that the genesis of a great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the race in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly grown. Before he can remodel his society, his society must make him which says that great men a re the product of their societies and their actions would be impossible without social conditions built before their lifetimes.This theory makes us see a great man as heroic person from birth which shows examples such as Napoleon, Shakespeare, Martin Luther, Mahatma Gandhi etc. the counter argument of Herbert Spencer is the one that helped this theory to be alive from its findings till date.Trait TheoryTrait theory is major area of study on human personality. Trait can be outlined as behavior, thought, emotions, etc. of people that differs among people and influence behavior. It can be described as behavioral act through which leadership style has been performed. It also has similarity with great man theory.Gordon Allports three tier modelGordon Allport was the first researcher to come up with this theory in 1936. He described four thousand personality traits. He categorized these traits into three levelsCardinal trait- traits that dominate an individuals whole life and person becom es to be recognized. These traits are rare.Central trait- these are cosmopolitan characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality. These are the major characteristics that is used to describe another person but not dominating as cardinal trait. Terms such as intelligent, honest, anxious are considered central trait.Secondary trait- these are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes and often appear only in certain situations. E.g. getting anxious speaking to a group.16 Personality FactorsThen, Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main personality traits found by Allports list of four thousand to one seventy one by eliminating uncommon traits and combining common characteristics. Then using, a statistical technique known as factor analysis, he identified closely related terms and reduced his list to just sixteen key personality traits. This is known as sixteen personality factor questionnaire (16PF). The sixteen personality traits are openness to experience , conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, self-esteem, harm avoidance, novelty seeking, perfectionism, alexithymia, rigidity, impulsivity, disinhibition, psychotism. Since its findings in 1949, it had been revised four times, once in 1956, then 1962, 1968 and in 1983.Eysenk three attributes of personalityHans Eysenk, a british psychologist create a three dimensional trait model which includesIntroversion/Extraversion introversion involves focusing on inner experience plot extraversion focusing attention outward on other people and environment. So, person with risque introversion might be quiet and reserved piece of music those with high extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.Neuroticism/Emotional stability This dimension is related to moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individuals tendency to become emotional opus stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constatnt.Psychoticism Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be anti-social and manipulative. Eyesenk added this trait after studying individuals suffering from mental illness.Big cinque Personality Trait ModelBig five framework of personality traits from rib and McCrae emerged based on research findings of Eyesenk and Cattell. This emerged because Cattell focused on too many traits and Eyesenk focused on too few. This model focuses on five core traits that move to form human personality. Those five traits areExtraversionAgreeablenessConscientiousnessNeuroticismOpennessMany psychologist believe this model is not only universal but also have biological origins.Totally, trait theory was researched by various other researchers such as D.W.Fiske(1949), Norman(1967), Smith(1967), Goldberg(1981) etc. One of the famous research work is Stogdills trait research.Stogdill (1974) identified the following traits and skills as critical to leaders.Traits areAdaptable to situationsAlert to social environmentAmbitious and achievement-orientatedAssertiveCooperative deciding(prenominal)DependableDominant (desire to influence others)Energetic (high activity level)PersistentSelf- self-confidentTolerant of stressWilling to assume responsibilitySkills areClever (intelligent)conceptually hotCreativeDiplomatic and tactfulFluent in speakingKnowledgeable about group problemOrganized (administrative ability)PersuasiveSocially skilledMcCall and Lombardo (1983) researched both success and failure identified four primary traits by which leaders could succeed or derailEmotional stability and composure Calm, confident and predictable, particularly when under stress.Admitting error Owning up to mistakes, rather than putting energy into covering up.Good interpersonal skills Able to communicate and persuade others without resort to interdict or coercive tactics.Intellectual breadth Able to understand a wide range of areas, rather than having a narrow (and narrow-minded) area of expertise.To be at long last said that trait theory as great man theory follows the same phrase of Leaders are born, not made. The only difference it also includes an extra element of personality rather than looking it as a historic way.Behavioral TheoryAfter the criticism of trait theory, many researched leadership in the form of behaviors, values etc. which lead to the behavioral theory that states behaviors of leaders pave way to learn and engage in leadership very easily. It also states that great leaders are made, not born. This theory focuses on actions of leaders, not on mental qualities. People learn to become leaders through teaching and observation. Under this theory there were two great studiesOhio State University Study This study was conducted by a group of people from Ohio state university. They developed a list of one-fifty statements which was designed to measure nine different behavioral leadership dimension. The resulting questionnaire is known as Leaders Behavior Description Questionnaire(LBDQ). This was provided to students, administers, even to armament personnel. The primary goal of the study was to identify common leadership behaviors. After analyzing the results, study led to a conclusion that there were two group of behaviors that were powerfully correlated. These were defined as consideration(People oriented behavioral leaders) and initiating structure(Task oriented leaders).University Of Michigan Study(1950s) This study was led by Dr. Rensis Likert. This leadership study identified three characteristics of effective leadership. devil were which already found in Ohio State University study. Third dimension which was found in this study was participative leadership.Some of the theories that are categorized under behavioral theory are listed belowRole Theory Various researchers are involved in this theory. Some are Margaret Mead, Talcot Parsons and Robert k. Merton. But, this became famous through B.F. Skinner. Role theory states that pursuit ar e able to send their expectations of how their leaders might act and leaders also have expectations of their own roles and responsibilities of how to act to the situation. If the leader is so sensitive to people they may accept the chase expectation. This theory really states what the leader should do depending on situations. This might also solve contravenes and sometime lead to role-conflict.It shows that the way the leader acts in the normal life must be implemented when they are needed to act as a leader. This can be considered as an avatar or second life. The leaders who are role-playing may require their followers to act as they do. To be said in phrase Do as I do. This theory can take any style such as autocratic or sometimes democratic. This depends on the behaviorism of leader i.e. the way they look or the way they act etc.McGregors Theory X and Theory Y This theory was developed by McGregor in 1960s. This theory outlines the pauperization need and behaviorism of leade rs. Theory X outlines that leaders think their followers are lazy and doesnt want to work, they are who wants to ignore work as wherever possible. Leaders also think that they are prudent to restructure their followers through high restrictive supervision and a punitive atmosphere. This might lead to mistrust and cause diseconomies of scale in large business.Theory Y outlines that leaders think that their followers are ambitious, self-motivated and they know what their responsibilities and make themselves work to what they seek. This influences the leader that their only job is to make available a comfortable environment for workers purpose. This improves superior-subordinate relationship, participative skills, human resource cultivation ability, conflict solving etc.Managerial power constitution Managerial grid is also known as leadership grid. This is formed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1960s. It is a graphical portrayal that depicts two dimension of leader behavior con cern for people on y-axis and concern for production on x-axis. This grid ranges from low(1) to high(9), creating 81 different positions to which leaders style may fall.Five leadership styles that results in the graph are -Indifferent or Impoverished Management (1,1) In this style leaders have low concern for people and production. Leaders use this style to preserve job and job seniority, and protect themselves by avoiding getting into trouble. The main concern of leaders is not to be held responsible for any mistake. Employees will have high degree of dissatisfaction, disharmony within group. Ineffective approach resulting ineffective operations and decisions for organizations.Country club or reconciling (1,9) Leaders have high concern for people and low concern for production. Leaders have qualities of yield and compliance to the situation. Leaders pay attention to the hostage and comfort of peoples hoping that performance would increase. Atmosphere would be friendly but ineff ective productivity. Employees are happy and harmony within team.Status Quo or Middle of the highroad Leaders in this style try to balance and compromise between company goals and workers needs. Leaders try to achieve the needs of people and production but its not really met. Even though if it is met it will be average production. There will be skillful harmony in teams and average production.authoritarian or Produce, Perish or Control (9,1) Leaders focus all their attention to production related matters and very little towards the needs of followers. Leaders will dominate as they hold the belief that gain could be achieved through rigid disciplines. This style remains effective where human interaction remain less. productivity is short lived. This style is inspired by McGregors Theory X. followers experience high level of dissatisfaction and there will be high level of conflict within group.Sound or Team (9,9) This is considered as the most effective leadership style where le aders will contribute, are committed, can motivate and are motivated while believing that trust, respect and empowerment are essential for fostering a team environment where followers are motivated which results in maximum employee satisfaction as well as most efficient productivity. This is inspired by McGregors Theory Y.To this grid later certain additions were made opportunistic style Leaders using this style do not have a fixed location on the grid and they adopt the behavior that offers the greatest benefit. Exploit and manipulative characteristics.Paternalistic style Leaders using this style support and guide and discourage challenges to their thinking. This style defined to alternate between the (1,9) and (9,1) locations on the grid.Behaviors of initiative, inquiry, advocacy, decision, conflict, critique, resilience were associated with managerial grid.Participative Leadership StyleParticipative model can be known as an approach or style as well as a theory in leadership co ncept. Participative theory is also known as democratic theory which is described under title of leadership approaches below.This theory views that leaders make available a clear definition roles/responsibilities to his/her followers and leaders require their views or participation to the task or situation which increases motivation, commitment level and more collaborative and creativity. Participant may be subordinates, peers etc. But, the decision will be made by the leader through various views are taken. Many methods exists such as consultation, democratic leadership, management by objectives, joint decision making etc. Negative impact is, if the participants view is alone neglected the followers may feel as they are betrayed and less motivated leading to less commitment.Lewins leadership style In 1939, Kurt Lewin with Ron Lippit and Robert White came up with three set of leadership styles which are autocratic, democratic/participative and delegative/free-rein (Laissez-Faire) s tyles.Autocratic leader takes his own decision without consultation of members, Laissez-Faire style leader allows the followers to work on their own and participative leader takes decision with the consultation of his/her followers. Even, Kurt Lewin says that participative leadership is the most effective leadership style among his three findings.Likerts leadership style Rensis Likert and his colleagues studies the styles of leaders for three decades at University of Michigan and identified a four model system. This model was based on basis of questionnaire which is provided to managers at various managerial positions in over two-hundred organizations.Likerts four leadership style are System 1 Exploitative AuthoritativeResponsibility lies in the hands of top managers. Superior has no trust, confidence in subordinates. Subordinates are not allowed to participate in decision making. Communication is very little and motivation is based on threats.System 2 clement AuthoritativeRespon sibility lies at managerial levels but not at lower level of organizational hierarchy. Superior has confidence and trust in subordinate which involves master-servant relationship. Still subordinates do not feel free to discuss things about the job with their superior. Communication is very little and motivation is based on honour system.System 3 informativeResponsibility is widely spread throughout the organization. The superior has substantial confidence in subordinates. Some discussion about job-related things take place between superior and subordinates. Fair communication takes place and motivation is based on rewards and involvement in job.System 4 ParticipativeResponsibility to achieve organizational goals is widely spread throughout the organizational hierarchy. Superior has high level of confidence in subordinates. High level of team work, communication and participation.Likert compares the four systems on the basis of leadership process, motivational force, communicatio n process, interaction-influence process, decision making process and concludes that system 1 and 2 are least productive whereas system 3 and 4 are most productive. Finally, it is noted that system 4- participative model is the most effective style among the four systems.Situational Leadership StyleAs participative style, situational leadership is also considered as a style and theory. The famous leadership model discussed under this theory is Hersey and Blanchards leadership style discussed below. This theory shows the effective leadership style to be chosen defending on the situation i.e. depending to the maturity level and ability to willingness etc. This theory was first introduced as Life cycle theory of leadership which is renamed to situational leadership in mid 1970s.Hersey and Blanchards Leadership style First, Hersey and Blanchard developed their own situational leadership concept. In 1970s, they mutually agreed and developed the concept of situational leadership based on task and relationship behaviors that leader provides to the followers. They categorized all leadership styles into four behavior types which they named asS1 Telling/Directing high task focus and low relationship focus. Leaders define the roles and task of followers. Decisions are made by leaders and announced, so communication is largely one way. pursual need direction and supervision to get started. This is required for people who lack competence but are enthusiastic and committed.S2 Selling/Coaching high task focus and high relationship focus. Leaders define roles and tasks to followers and also seek suggestions from followers. Communication is two way. Followers need direction and supervision because they are still inexperienced. They need support to build self-esteem and involvement in decision making to restore their commitment. This helps for people who have some competence but lack commitment.S3 Participating/Supporting low task focus and high relationship focus. Leade r pass day to day decisions to followers but maneuver is with the followers. This is required for people who have competence but lack confidence or motivation but, they do not need much direction because of their skills.S4 delegacy low task focus and low relationship focus. Leaders are still involved in decision and problem solving but control is with followers. Follower decides when and how leader will be involved. It is useful for people who have both competence and commitment. They are able and willing to work by themselves.Hersey and Blanchards situational leadership style developed four levels of maturityM1 followers of this maturity level lack specific skills or knowledge to work on their own. They need to be directed and supervised.M2 they are willing to work but are unable to take independent responsibility to the task on which they are willing to work.M3 followers at this maturity level are experienced and are able to work on the task but lack confidence to take the responsibility.M4 followers at this maturity level are ones willing to take the task and be responsible for it and they have the experience to work on it.A good leader develops the competence and commitment in followers, So they are self-motivated rather than being dependant. So, Hersey develops four combination of competence and commitment which is known as development level.D1 Low competence and high commitmentD2 Low competence and low commitmentD3 High competence and low commitmentD4 High competence and high commitmentCompetence shows ones task focus, experience etc. and commitment shows ones confidence and motivational level.Vroom and Yettons Normative Model This model is created by Vroom in collaboration with Yetton and later joining hands with Jago. The Vroom-Yetton-Jago model identifies five different styles on situation and level of involvement. They areAutocratic type 1 (A I) Leader makes the decision on his/her own with the information he/she readily have at the time . This style is completely autocratic.Autocratic type 2 (A II) Decision is made by the leader, but information from relevant followers are collected. Decision or the problem is not informed to the followers. Followers only involvement is providing information.Consultative type 1 (C I) Leaders make the decision alone but he/she shares the problem to relevant followers individually and seek their ideas. Followers do not meet each other and leaders decision may or may not reflect his/her followers i

Evolutionary Developmental Biology Essay -- Biology

Evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) was instituted in the early 1980s as a distinctive field of written report to characterise the new synthesis of evolution hypothesis (Mller, 2007). Evo-devo is regarded as a new rule in evolutionary biology and a complement to neo-Darwinian theories. It has formed from the combination of molecular developmental biology and evolutionary molecular genetics their integration has helped greatly to understand both of these fields. Evo-devo as a make up has been exploring the role of the operation of individual development and the changes in evolutionary phenotype, meaning the developmental procedure by which single-celled zygotes grow to be multicellular organisms. Alterations in the developmental program frequently cause differences in adult morphology. When these alterations are helpful, they grow to be fixed in a population and can go away in the evolution of new phyla. Evo-devo seeks to figure out how new groups happen by understanding how the method of development has evolved in different lineages. In some other word, evo-devo explains the interaction between phenotype and genotype (Hall, 2007). Explanation of structural novelty of evolutionary origins is one of the middle challenges in current evolutionary biology, and is intertwined with energetic discussion regarding how to merge developmental biology to standard perspectives from the theory of evolution (Laubichler, 2010). A large amount of theoretical and experiential effort is being devoted to novelties that have challenged biologists for more than than one hundred years, for instance, the basis of fins in fish, the fin-to-limb change and the evolution of feathers. The biology of development promises to formulate a main contribution to these... ...is. Moreover, the relationship between neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory and evo-devo is highly contested (Hoekstra and Coyne, 2007 Minelli, 2010). However, the understanding of evo-devo methods and how the characteristics of the morphologies of different species diverged eventually is still comparatively limited. Craig (2010) stated that this field has obviously contributed to the understanding of genes and, subsequently, the understanding morphological characteristics of evolution in intricate organisms. There has been significant confirmation of evo-devos claim that regulatory modifications play an essential role in the evolution of shape. Evo-devo is the process of becoming a conceptual hub for an even larger integration of research areas in organismal biology, including genetics, ecology, paleontology, behavior, cognition, and other fields (Gerd B. Mller)

Mary Shelleys Frankenstein :: Essays Papers

bloody shame Shelleys FrankensteinUnbelievably Mary Shelley wrote the novel Frankensteinat the age of eighteen. This coarse work captures the imaginations of itsreaders. Frankenstein remains one of the greatest examples of Gothicliterature. Unlike other Gothic novels of the time, however, Frankenstein alsoincludes elements of Romantic writing, and therefore cannot be classified assoley Gothic. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley was an English novelist. The daughterof the British philosopher William Godwin and the British author andfeminist Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin. Born in London in 1797, Mary wasprivately educated. She met the young poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in May1814, and two months later she odd England with him. When Shelleys firstwife died in December 1816, he married Mary. Marys first and most outstanding work, the novel Frankenstein, was begun on Lake Geneva in thesummer of 1816 as her contribution to a ghost-story competition. Aremarkable accomplishment for such a young write r, Frankenstein was asuccess. No other work by Mary Shelley achieved the popularity orexcellence of this first work, although she wrote four other novels, books oftravel sketches, and miscellaneous tales. In 1818 the Shelleys left Englandfor Italy, where they stayed until Shelleys death. Only one of Marys andPercys children survived, Percy Florence, and in 1823 Mary returned toEngland with him and concentrated on his education and welfare. The imageof Mary Shelley presented by the biographers suggests an intensely private,imaginatively exuberant, yet also emotionally withdrawn figure, whosepolitical melancholy and strong religious faith are intriguingly at odds withthe optimistic freethinking of her famous parents, and her poet husbandsatheistic radicalism.The story of Frankenstein begins in the polar ice of the Arctic Circle.The ship of an English explorer, Walton, is trapped in the ice and is ineffectiveto travel. During the day the men on board spotted a sledge, driven by ahuge man and drawn by dogs followed by master key Frankenstein, a man invery poor condition. Walton nursed him back to health as the stranger toldWalton his story. Victor Frankenstein was born in Geneva and at an early age showedpromise in the natural sciences. Victor was sent to a university when hegrew older, and thats where he stumbled on to the secret of creating life.With great nobleness Victor created an eight-foot monster and gave him lifethrough electricity.Once Victor had realized what he had done he panicked and left thecreature. When the creature wondered into the city everyone he metscreamed and ran away. Finally the creature found a place to live in a

Abortion is Morally Wrong :: Argumentative Essays

In my argumentative coursework I am arguing that spontaneous abortion is wrong and not to be mis wadn with Abortion should be made illegal. I will explain later why I have made this statement. Abortion is the termination of an unborn baby in its mothers womb for up to twenty four weeks of the pregnancy or in special circumstances e.g. Disability diagnosis a termination right on up until the mother goes in to labour. I think the above definition is an easier and less harsh way of saying that abortion is the murdering of a human being. in that respect are several reasons why abortion is legal and several reasons why it shouldn?t be. I believe there are five3 main ways of pr in timeting abortion and this is why it is wrong and should be illegal. My first point that concerns the prevention abortion is contraception could be made more easily available. I believe that this is the beaver and most effective way of reducing abortion because the fact is tha t it is not as accessible as it could be and that a large population does not know how to use contraceptives. My second point is that sex education should be taught properly by a teacher or that teenagers should be made to take a course which explains all the aspects of sex and pregnancy. Research tells that a large number of teenagers do not know how reproduction works or even know what is going on in their bodies. Although teachers are meant to teach this, a lot of teenagers will not understand or may just dislodge the matter and will learn from tv set or other teenagers and may be misled in to believing certain things about the matter e.g. The hit television soap ?Coronation Street? had a story line involving a teenage girl who got pregnant and her life turned out fine with no disadvantages. Although some girls may believe this can happen, it is very unlikely. I also feel that parents should not have to bear this burden as it may be embarrassing or uncomfortable explaining this to a